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(\223The mark of the modern world is the imagination of its )Tj
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(profiteers and the counter-assertiveness of the oppressed. )Tj
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(Exploitation and the refusal to accept exploitation as either )Tj
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(modern era, joined together in a dialectic which has far from )Tj
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(Surely it is one of the more remarkable aspects of contemporary )Tj
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(those actions. The spread and growing recognition of claims for )Tj
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(reparations calls sharply into question the age-old idea that \223the st\
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(they have the power to do and the weak accept what they have to )Tj
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(accept\224 \(Thucydides\). The past has increasingly become a political \
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(a terrain on which states and various groups battle over the conjoined )Tj
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(stakes of \221recognition\222 and \221redistribution.\222 These developm\
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(The various claims for reparations for historical injustices now being r\
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(shift in the \221liability\222 of states for past actions that is inhere\
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(Claims for reparations for historical injustices come in three basic )Tj
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(include claims arising from state-sponsored mass killing, forced labor, \
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(sexual exploitation on the part of the Axis powers \(Germany and Japan\)\
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(Winter 2000 Newsletter, Comparative & Historical Sociology)Tj
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(claims related to fairly recent abuses, demands for reparations may )Tj
0 -1.2 TD
(extend to alleged injustices dating far back into the past. Most )Tj
T*
(prominently in this respect, we witness claims for reparations by a vari\
ety )Tj
T*
(of \221indigenous\222 groups against states dominated by the descendants\
of )Tj
T*
(their European conquerors. Despite their differences, the various kinds \
of )Tj
T*
(reparations claims frequently share the common characteristic that the )Tj
T*
(Holocaust is regarded as a standard for judging the seriousness of \227a\
nd )Tj
0 -1.20001 TD
(as a template for claiming compensation for\227 past injustices.)Tj
/T1_0 1 Tf
11.67313 0 0 11.67313 513.05186 666.81319 Tm
( )Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
10.77519 0 0 10.77519 177.59837 637.07426 Tm
(The reparations paid by the Germans to the Jews after World War II thus \
)Tj
0 -1.2 TD
(unsurprisingly constitute the \221paradigm case\222 of reparations for h\
istorical )Tj
T*
(injustices. Because the Nazis targeted specific population groups as wel\
l )Tj
T*
(as other states, the kinds of groups to whom \221reparations\222 could b\
e paid )Tj
T*
(has expanded since the war to include a variety of non-state entities. O\
ver )Tj
T*
(the years, the \(West\) German government has paid out large sums to )Tj
T*
(individual Jews and to the state of Israel in atonement for its )Tj
0 -1.20001 TD
(predecessor\222s actions. But not all groups persecuted by the Nazis hav\
e )Tj
0 -1.2 TD
(been as successful in having their claims for compensation recognized. )Tj
T*
(This has been particularly true of gypsies and homosexuals \(Pross 1998\)\
.)Tj
/T1_0 1 Tf
11.67313 0 0 11.67313 577.11041 520.70212 Tm
( )Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
10.77519 0 0 10.77519 177.59837 490.9632 Tm
(In the United States, the watershed case has been that of the Japanese-)Tj
T*
(Americans interned as \221enemy aliens\222 during World War II. In 1948,\
the U. )Tj
T*
(S. Congress had adopted the Japanese-American Evacuation Claims Act, )Tj
T*
(which compensated \227for concrete property losses only\227 those Japane\
se-)Tj
T*
(Americans who had been interned during the war. The Civil Rights Act of \
)Tj
T*
(1988, in contrast, attempted a more comprehensive approach to repairing \
)Tj
T*
(the wrongs done to those who had been incarcerated. Each survivor of the\
)Tj
0 -1.20001 TD
(internments was to receive a symbolic settlement of $20,000 \(see Maki e\
t. )Tj
0 -1.2 TD
(al. 1999\). In a parallel process, a smaller group of previously interne\
d )Tj
T*
(Japanese Canadians received compensation on roughly similar terms. )Tj
T*
(More recently, a number of South American Japanese who had been )Tj
T*
(transported \227in effect, kidnapped\227 from Latin America \(mainly Per\
u\) )Tj
T*
(during the war and interned on the same \221national security\222 ground\
s were )Tj
T*
(awarded $5,000 based on the 1988 law that compensated the Japanese-)Tj
T*
(Americans. These highly publicized cases have helped to promote the )Tj
T*
(notion that one can receive compensation for past injustices, as well as\
to )Tj
T*
(reinforce the drift toward compensation for more \221psychological\222 k\
inds of )Tj
T*
(damages that had also taken place in the German case \(see Danieli 1992\)\
.)Tj
/T1_0 1 Tf
11.67313 0 0 11.67313 584.91167 271.14912 Tm
( )Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
10.77519 0 0 10.77519 177.59837 241.4102 Tm
(In contrast to the German and American reparations payments, Japan has )Tj
T*
(generally been less forthcoming with respect to compensating those it )Tj
T*
(victimized during World War II. Perhaps the most prominent case here )Tj
T*
(concerns the Korean \(and other\) \221comfort women,\222 who have been )Tj
T*
(pressing for compensation from the Japanese for some time. Some of )Tj
T*
(these women have been compensated by the Japanese through the )Tj
T*
(creation of the \221Asian Women\222s Fund,\222 which was to collect fund\
s from )Tj
0 -1.20001 TD
(private sources to compensate comfort women, but has been relatively )Tj
0 -1.2 TD
(unsuccessful in doing so. Although Japanese Prime Minister Ryutaro )Tj
T*
(Hashimoto in 1996 extended his \221sincere apologies and remorse\222 to \
the )Tj
T*
(comfort women, and the Japanese government in 1998 paid three women )Tj
T*
($2,300 each in compensation for their suffering, the difficulties )Tj
T*
(encountered by the comfort women in gaining monetary redress is )Tj
T*
(consistent with the general recalcitrance of the Japanese to admit their\
)Tj
T*
(liability for wartime atrocities, particularly in comparison to the Germ\
ans )Tj
T*
(\(Buruma 1994\).)Tj
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( )Tj
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(Winter 2000 Newsletter, Comparative & Historical Sociology)Tj
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(Alongside the comfort women\222s ongoing pursuit of compensation, the )Tj
0 -1.2 TD
(1997 publication of Iris Chang\222s The Rape of Nanking: The Forgotten )Tj
T*
(Holocaust of World War II imparted renewed energy to the quest for )Tj
T*
(reparations arising from that massacre \(indeed, the book is in part fra\
med )Tj
T*
(as a demand for reparations\). The Japanese have thus found themselves )Tj
T*
(under intensified pressure in recent years to make amends for their )Tj
T*
(actions during World War II. In view of the reluctance of the Chinese )Tj
T*
(government to exert this sort of pressure \(or to allow others to do so\)\
, )Tj
0 -1.20001 TD
(these developments probably derive in part from the substantial growth i\
n )Tj
0 -1.2 TD
(the numbers of overseas Chinese and their descendants in North America, \
)Tj
T*
(some of whom have taken up the human rights agenda. Chang notes that )Tj
T*
(her interest in the Rape of Nanking was sparked by her attendance at a )Tj
T*
(conference on the massacre organized by the Global Alliance for )Tj
T*
(Preserving the History of World War II in Asia that was held in the hear\
t of )Tj
T*
(Silicon Valley in 1994.)Tj
/T1_0 1 Tf
11.67313 0 0 11.67313 297.83881 571.01569 Tm
( )Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
10.77519 0 0 10.77519 177.59837 541.27675 Tm
(Claims for reparations arising out of transitions from authoritarian to \
)Tj
T*
(democratic rule comprise the second major category of such claims. For )Tj
T*
(example, Argentina is faced with numerous demands to pay compensation )Tj
T*
(to those who suffered from the \221dirty war\222 of the 1970s and early \
1980s, )Tj
T*
(or their relatives. But the governmental repression of leftists in\
Latin )Tj
T*
(America during that period was aregional matter, organized in part \
)Tj
T*
(under the rubric of the \221Condor Plan,\222 a pact coordinating efforts\
among )Tj
T*
(Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Chile, and Paraguay. Recently, Argentina agr\
eed )Tj
0 -1.20001 TD
(to indemnify the wife of former Bolivian president Juan Jose Torres for \
his )Tj
0 -1.2 TD
(death in Argentina at the hands of government agents. The list of such )Tj
T*
(victims is long, and efforts to gain compensation for the misdeeds of th\
at )Tj
T*
(era will remain an element of Latin-American politics for years to come.\
)Tj
/T1_0 1 Tf
11.67313 0 0 11.67313 567.55281 399.04413 Tm
( )Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
10.77519 0 0 10.77519 177.59837 369.30521 Tm
(Against this background, South Africa represents a mixed case: what had \
)Tj
T*
(been colonial oppression of an indigenous group became, over time, a )Tj
T*
(case of authoritarian rule over a subordinate class of racially defined \
non-)Tj
T*
(citizen subjects. Demands for reparations for injustices suffered under \
the )Tj
T*
(apartheid regime follow from a transition to democracy, but they involve\
)Tj
T*
(claims of what are arguably \221indigenous\222 groups against European-)Tj
T*
(descended invader-oppressors. The situation in parts of Latin America is\
)Tj
0 -1.20001 TD
(similarly mixed; Mayan Indians in Guatemala, for example, suffered at th\
e )Tj
0 -1.2 TD
(hands of the government as a result of both their \221indigenousness\222\
and the )Tj
T*
(fact that they were at various times subjects of terroristic regimes. To\
the )Tj
T*
(extent that these and other groups raise claims on the basis of their )Tj
T*
(\221indigenousness,\222 they are building their political projects on ef\
forts to gain )Tj
T*
(compensation for past abuses. In contrast, the Chiapas rebellion, while \
)Tj
T*
(carried out by \(and on behalf of\) \221indigenous\222 groups, has been \
)Tj
T*
(distinctively forward-looking in character \227noting past discriminator\
y )Tj
T*
(treatment, and raising claims for autonomy, but more concerned with )Tj
T*
(policies to improve the Chiapas peasants\222 situation in the future.)Tj
/T1_0 1 Tf
11.67313 0 0 11.67313 528.26645 162.42139 Tm
( )Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
10.77519 0 0 10.77519 177.59837 132.68246 Tm
(These cases bring us to the third major variety of claims for reparation\
s: )Tj
T*
(attempts to compensate for the injustices committed in the course of )Tj
T*
(various forms of colonization. The classic, \221external\222 version of \
colonialism )Tj
T*
(was largely resolved during the second trimester of the twentieth centur\
y )Tj
T*
(as the process of decolonization swept through Asia and Africa, and clai\
ms )Tj
T*
(for reparations as such have not been prominent in these countries. In )Tj
T*
(contrast, colonization-related claims for reparations arising in recent \
years )Tj
0 -1.20001 TD
(stem from the conquests carried out by European \221fragment\222 settler\
)Tj
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(Winter 2000 Newsletter, Comparative & Historical Sociology)Tj
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(societies in Canada, Australia, South Africa, and Latin America, as well\
as )Tj
0 -1.2 TD
(in the United States \(on the concept of \221fragment\222 societies, see\
Hartz )Tj
T*
(1964; Lipset 1990 properly rejects Hartz\222s view of the United States \
as a )Tj
T*
(European \221fragment\222 society\). These conquests led to the subjugat\
ion and )Tj
T*
(dispossession of aboriginal groups and their reduction to alien subjects\
of )Tj
T*
(the invading power. Some thirty years ago, Robert Blauner expanded the )Tj
T*
(notion of colonization to include groups forcibly imported into many of \
)Tj
0 -1.20001 TD
(those same territories, such as African slaves and \221coolies\222 from \
China and )Tj
0 -1.2 TD
(elsewhere \(Blauner 1972\).)Tj
/T1_0 1 Tf
11.67313 0 0 11.67313 322.27696 653.88295 Tm
( )Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
10.77519 0 0 10.77519 177.59837 624.14403 Tm
(As a political matter, Blauner\222s conception of \221internal coloniali\
sm\222 along )Tj
T*
(racial lines has been much more significant as a basis for reparations )Tj
T*
(claims-making than that developed by Michael Hechter \(1975\). Yet the )Tj
T*
(central dynamic identified by Hechter in his analysis of internal coloni\
alism )Tj
T*
(as state-formation \227the creation of distinctions between \221citizens\
\222 and )Tj
T*
(\221subjects\222 resident in the same territory\227 lies at the root of \
claims for )Tj
T*
(reparations today. Understood in this way, claims for reparations compri\
se )Tj
0 -1.20001 TD
(part of the long twentieth-century history of decolonization; reparation\
s in )Tj
0 -1.2 TD
(these cases are a kind of substitute for decolonization under )Tj
T*
(circumstances in which the invaders came to constitute the vast majority\
)Tj
T*
(of the population of the country in question, and are not now likely to \
pull )Tj
T*
(up stakes and return to the \221mother\222 country.)Tj
/T1_0 1 Tf
11.67313 0 0 11.67313 424.08104 481.91141 Tm
( )Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
10.77519 0 0 10.77519 177.59837 452.17247 Tm
(Such claims only gain serious attention, however, in cases of the )Tj
T*
(colonization of non-whites by whites \(or at least those who are today s\
o )Tj
T*
(regarded\). Decolonization in northern Ireland has not been marked by )Tj
T*
(claims for reparations against the British, nor is it likely to be, even\
if the )Tj
T*
(Irish only \221became white\222 relatively recently. Nor am I aware of a\
ny cases )Tj
T*
(of indigenous or otherwise subordinated groups seeking reparations from \
)Tj
T*
(dominant groups who are not of predominantly European origin. At the )Tj
0 -1.20001 TD
(close of the twentieth century, W. E. B. Dubois\222 prediction at its da\
wn )Tj
0 -1.2 TD
(\227\223The problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the colou\
r line, )Tj
T*
(the relation of the darker to the lighter races of men in Asia and Afric\
a, in )Tj
T*
(America and the islands of the sea\224\227 deserves a new lease on life \
for the )Tj
T*
(twenty-first.)Tj
/T1_0 1 Tf
11.67313 0 0 11.67313 244.54468 309.93985 Tm
( )Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
10.77519 0 0 10.77519 177.59837 280.20093 Tm
(In Canada and Australia, the reparations claims of indigenous groups hav\
e )Tj
T*
(sometimes involved compensation to aboriginal groups for their forcible \
)Tj
T*
(integration into the dominant society through residential schools. These\
)Tj
T*
(cases reflect the emergence of what one might call an \221ecological\222\
attitude )Tj
T*
(toward human groups: like animal species in the environmentalist\222s vi\
ew, )Tj
T*
(all human groups have an equal right to life, and deserve protection in \
the )Tj
T*
(interest of their preservation. Efforts to integrate them into the domin\
ant, )Tj
0 -1.20001 TD
(European-derived culture, however well-meaning, are now condemned )Tj
0 -1.2 TD
(and may even be equated with genocide \(on the basis of the clause in th\
e )Tj
T*
(1948 Genocide Convention barring forcible transfer of the children of on\
e )Tj
T*
(group to another, as has been argued in the Australian case\).)Tj
/T1_0 1 Tf
11.67313 0 0 11.67313 513.20271 150.89853 Tm
( )Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
10.77519 0 0 10.77519 177.59837 121.15961 Tm
(In Canada, Australia, and the United States, there are also major land )Tj
T*
(claims at issue. Canada has recently given limited self-government over \
)Tj
T*
(enormous territories to the Inuit of the Arctic Circle, and a treaty gra\
nting )Tj
T*
(to the Nisga\222a band both monetary compensation and similar control ov\
er )Tj
T*
(a sizeable chunk of northwestern British Columbia has been wending its )Tj
T*
(way through parliament. One of the most publicized land claims cases in \
)Tj
T*
(the United States of late has been that of the Oneida in New York State.\
)Tj
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(Winter 2000 Newsletter, Comparative & Historical Sociology)Tj
ET
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(The Oneida contend that they were deprived of most of their land in )Tj
0 -1.2 TD
(contravention of a federal law of 1790, which prohibited individual stat\
es )Tj
T*
(from acquiring Indian lands without federal approval. The Oneida\222s la\
wsuit )Tj
T*
(had been limping along with little progress for some 30 years until it w\
as )Tj
T*
(kick-started recently when lawyers for the tribe named as co-defendants \
a )Tj
T*
(number of the current property-holders. The differing attitudes toward t\
he )Tj
T*
(claims of indigenous peoples in Canada and the U.S. are rooted in the )Tj
0 -1.20001 TD
(divergent historical origins and consequent institutional arrangements o\
f )Tj
0 -1.2 TD
(the two countries, as a result of which Canada is considerably more )Tj
T*
(sympathetic to group-based rights than the more individualistic United )Tj
T*
(States.)Tj
/T1_0 1 Tf
11.67313 0 0 11.67313 215.89343 628.02248 Tm
( )Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
10.77519 0 0 10.77519 177.59837 598.28355 Tm
(The case of reparations for black Americans \227arguably a strong one, )Tj
T*
(given the persistence of inequalities rooted in the history of racial sl\
avery )Tj
T*
(and Jim Crow\227 has been pressed intermittently, yet these efforts to g\
ain )Tj
T*
(monetary compensation have been largely unavailing. As Blauner\222s )Tj
T*
(account of \221internal colonialism\222 recognized, the situation of bla\
ck )Tj
T*
(Americans is different from that of \221indigenous\222 groups. Aside fro\
m the )Tj
T*
(lack of overwhelming support for reparations from the black population )Tj
0 -1.20001 TD
(itself \(see Brooks 1999\), the relative weakness of the black American \
case )Tj
0 -1.2 TD
(for reparations can be explained as follows: Blacks are not \221indigeno\
us\222 to )Tj
T*
(the United States; they therefore cannot claim that their territory has \
)Tj
T*
(been invaded and that they have suffered under alien domination. At the \
)Tj
T*
(same time, they have not been the victims of a systematic campaign of )Tj
T*
(genocide, despite the sustained patterns of oppression and inequality to\
)Tj
T*
(which blacks have been subjected. Having been taken from their places of\
)Tj
T*
(origin and enslaved on their oppressors\222 home ground, their case for \
)Tj
T*
(monetary reparations on the model of the Jews or of indigenous groups is\
)Tj
T*
(relatively weak, although affirmative action is clearly an attempt to )Tj
T*
(compensate through more individualistic means for this legacy of injusti\
ce.)Tj
/T1_0 1 Tf
11.67313 0 0 11.67313 585.14871 378.4695 Tm
( )Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
10.77519 0 0 10.77519 177.59837 348.73056 Tm
(The foregoing represents only the beginning of an attempt to make sense \
)Tj
T*
(of the worldwide impact of the human rights discourse that has become so\
)Tj
T*
(pervasive after World War II and, in particular, the ways in which that \
)Tj
T*
(discourse has helped make a political project of the past. Part of what \
)Tj
T*
(intrigues me about this line of research is the opportunity it offers to\
link )Tj
T*
(up the findings of work in comparative-historical sociology with urgent \
)Tj
T*
(contemporary political developments. Keeping in mind the connection )Tj
0 -1.20001 TD
(between analysis and policy-making enlivens and disciplines the research\
)Tj
0 -1.2 TD
(task, focusing our attention on the \(potentially\) very real consequenc\
es of )Tj
T*
(what we do.)Tj
/T1_0 1 Tf
11.67313 0 0 11.67313 243.95204 232.35841 Tm
( )Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
10.77519 0 0 10.77519 177.59837 202.62688 Tm
(References)Tj
/T1_0 1 Tf
11.67313 0 0 11.67313 244.94336 202.62688 Tm
( )Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
10.77519 0 0 10.77519 177.59837 188.73006 Tm
(Blauner, Robert. 1972. Racial Oppression in America. New York: Harper & \
)Tj
T*
(Row.)Tj
/T1_0 1 Tf
11.67313 0 0 11.67313 204.36397 175.79982 Tm
( )Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
10.77519 0 0 10.77519 177.59837 146.0609 Tm
(Brooks, Roy, ed. 1999. When Sorry Isn\222t Enough: The Controversy Over \
)Tj
T*
(Apologies and Reparations for Human Injustice. New York: New York )Tj
T*
(University Press.)Tj
/T1_0 1 Tf
11.67313 0 0 11.67313 268.31477 120.20042 Tm
( )Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
10.77519 0 0 10.77519 177.59837 90.46149 Tm
(Buruma, Ian. 1994. The Wages of Guilt: Memories of War in Germany and )Tj
T*
(Japan. New York: Meridian.)Tj
/T1_0 1 Tf
11.67313 0 0 11.67313 326.56549 77.53125 Tm
( )Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
10.77519 0 0 10.77519 177.59837 47.79233 Tm
(Danieli, Yael. 1992. \223Preliminary Reflections from a Psychological )Tj
T*
(Perspective.\224 Pp. 196-213 in Theo van Boven, et. al., eds., Seminar o\
n the )Tj
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